"The historic traditions that emerged from the thirteenth century on were, in part, the product of a period of great turbulence caused by the expansion of Tai-speaking peoples in the region. The new historic cultures of the Yuan, Siamese, Lao, Khmer, Burmans, Shans and Mons were not, however, simply the products of political conflict between the Tai and the classic civilizations. The new historic traditions were also associated with a new ideology, one that not only legitimated new types of political systems, but had marked implications for all aspects of social life."1
The political and social ideologies of the Buddhist doctrine, particularly Therevada Buddhism, meant wide appeal for the people of Southeast Asia. these ideologies included an emphasis on order and discipline, social equality and a means to salvation. After looking at the history and doctrine of Buddhism, the discussion will centre on Burma (now known as Myanmar).
Buddhism is the oldest of the world's great religions and was founded by Siddhartha Guatama, who achieved 'Enlightenment' some 2500 years ago and was known as the Buddha, or the 'Enlightened'. Guatama Buddha was a nobleman born near the border of India and Nepal. India was thus the land of Buddhist origin. But just as Christianity was forced out of Palestine, so Buddhism was forced out of India. By an early date, it had reached all of India's bordering countries. 2
The spread of Islam forced it to again disappear in large areas of Central Asia and to the West of India. Buddhism did, however, find a solid home with the Tibetans; in large areas of east Asia, as far as Japan and Korea; in several Southeast Asian countries; and in Sri Lanka. Even the Chinese Cultural Revolution did not permanently destroy Buddhism in the 'Middle Kingdom' and, now that religious practice is again permitted in China, although only to a limited degree, it can be seen that the attempt to ultimately suppress Buddhism was a failure. 2
Buddhism became known and accepted as a world religion because of its ability to adapt to a wide range of social conditions. For example, it is present today in industrialised Japan as well as in the peasant societies of Southeast Asia. Its strength as a missionary religion can be seen in its spread to the United States of America via Hawaii and to Europe and North America by the turn of the century. Also, Buddhist monks and monasteries have again appeared in the countries of Indonesia and India, where it had seemed long extinct. 2
Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are the three world religions. Where the latter two demand allegiance to one God, Buddhism makes no such demand. Also, the latter believe that the world was created by God and thus has religious significance and that God is relevant to man's salvation. Buddhism, however, has views about God and the world but it is not concerned with either. "Buddhism is concerned with man, or rather all living, suffering beings. Buddhism is about morality, meditation and gnosis." 2
Buddhism as a philosophy is largely concerned with revealing the way to salvation, with meditation being the chief means.4 It teaches that suffering is a fact of life and that living things are constantly reborn in this endless cycle. The concept of gnosis is to realise and act accordingly on the idea that there is no 'Self', such as a soul, to pass from one life to another. The concept of 'Self' is a physical and mental perception, kept alive by desire.Without desire, there is no rebirth as there is no 'Self' to be reborn. 2
In the elimination of desire and the subsequent attainment of salvation, Buddhist teachings state that the mind must be purified. This involves kindness to ourselves and others and to love, sympathise with, and respect all things equally. As there is no 'Self', there is no selfishness. The Buddha encouraged an escape from suffering by the renouncement of the world and a devotion to meditation. "Free from social and family ties, and from the need to earn a living, they should devote themselves to a life of meditation."2 The Buddha founded a monastic Order to make such a life possible. The small number of nuns and monks, or bhikkhuni and bhikkhu, who practiced early Buddhism as closely as possible to the teachings of Guatama Buddha, represented the Sangha, or Buddhist order.1
This early Buddhism was divided into different schools of thought, due in some cases to the use of different languages to communicate the tradition. A division that endures today, and the most well-known, is that between Mahayana Buddhism and Therevada Buddhism. The former is the Buddhism of the 'Greater Vehicle' and used a script written in Sanskrit, while the latter, known as the 'Way of the Elders' used a tradition written in Pali. Also, the two divisions interpreted certain fundamental Buddhist doctrines quite differently.1
During the twelfth century, Burmese monks travelled to Ceylon where Therevada Buddhism was being promoted with great enthusiasm as the 'true faith'. As legend has it, these monks returned and reported back, spreading their message through Southeast Asia to other centres of Buddhism. In about 1180, a group of novices and monks travelled from Burma to Ceylon to study Therevada Buddhism. These five monks were ordained there and spent ten years in Ceylon.1 In 1190, they returned to Southeast Asia as elders to establish the Singhalese form of Therevada Buddhism. Whether legend or not, this form of Therevada Buddhism was established by the thirteenth century and was spreading through Southeast Asia.1
"The Therevada Buddhist monarchies of mainland Southeast Asia were products of a period of political upheaval and cultural change, which followed the collapse of earlier Indianized empires..."5 The monarchy played an important role as a social and political authority which corresponded with and transcended the values of Buddhism. In this way, Indian and Buddhist theories of kingship acted as a guide for the ideal behaviour of the monarch and blended with the political style of the indigenous people. One of the most prominent of the Therevada Buddhist monarchies was that of Ava in central Burma. 5
The kingdom of Ava succeeded the Empire of Pagan. The Pagan kings united the area, now known as the core of modern Burma, into a single Buddhist state between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. Later dynasties built upon this system "organised on common cultural concepts and administered through a loosely structured protobureaucratic system based upon the economic strength of the rice-producing irrigated Kyaukse valley".5 By the fifteenth century, a vast majority of the population of what is now Burma, were followers of Therevada Buddhism.1
"Burma is a country of a different time where time itself moves at a different speed; a country apart--but contentedly and even determinedly--from the world." 6 A key to this character lies in the arrival and influence of Buddhism and its interaction with the geography and ethnicity of Burma. On one side, Burma is bordered by the sea. On the other three sides, she is surrounded by dense forests and mountains. Such geography guarantees a level of impenetrability and protection.6 Her history saw the formation of many different kingdoms.
The Pyu and Burmese (Mramma) tribes moved from southeast Tibet in search of fertile land, an escape from local hostilities and a better climate in the first century A.D. At around the same time, the Mons moved from what is today known as Thailand, settling in east Burma. The Mongols invaded the kingdom of Wethali (Arakan) in the west, forming a serf state of Pagan.6 Along with these separate kingdoms, there existed a patchwork of ethnicity and social conditions.
The shaping and persona of Burmese history and its people was fundamentally affected by the arrival of Therevada Buddhism. King Anawrahta of Pagan was converted to this when a young monk, Shin Arahan, reported to him. The king had "wearied of the Tantric spirit and animal worship by which the original forms of Buddhism ha been corrupted and took to the pure faith with startling zeal". 6
The tribes that had migrated from their countries of origin had united with the discovery of Therevada Buddhism. Their quest upon migrating was to preserve their individualism and Therevada was complimentary to their society and to the preservation of their culture. "The equality of all men and women, the emphasis on order and discipline and disdain for the caste system of Hinduism were fundamental to its appeal."6 This new religion achieved almost instant succcess and became buried in the consciousness of the people. the Triptika was translated from Pali, thus giving the Burmese a script they had otherwise never had.
Monastries were built and were utilised as a place of education. Here, children were taught the scriptures and to read and write. This underlines the Buddhist ideal of equality and equal opportunity and emphasises the negatives of the Hindu caste system. One of the essences of Buddhism, and one that lends intrinsically to its appeal, is in its ability to counteract the negative and immoral social effects of hinduism. 7
Ethics are not part of the Hindu doctrine, instead representing a separate system with its basis on the existing historical social structure. On the other hand, Buddhism is "intrinsically an ethic".7 The Buddhist ethic is at the core of the religion and cannot be separated from it. The Hindu caste system proclaims inequality, while equality forms a fundamental part of the Buddhist doctrine.7
The Sangha in Burma was the vessel for literary culture. Aside from the handing down of the Holy scriptures, other literary skills were cultivated to assist the monks study of the scriptures. These were the historical and comparative sciences of language such as grammar, lexicography, rhetoric and metrics. A number of monks developed these disciplines in Burma. Many Pali works were combined with Burmese analogies or were translated into Burmese. The Burmese language is prevalent in hundreds of works of Buddhist literature. The monk's knowledge was passed on to the village people and the monastery was the school for the village children.2 No longer was education exclusively for the noble classes. Buddhism offered opportunity to all.
The insular nature of Burma's geography ensured an intensification of Buddhism whereby the people were so involved in the pursuit of Nirvana, or ultimate salvation, that they were unconcerned about the outside world. They were aware of, and content with, their individuality and believed in their superiority--a belief emphasised by being a small population in a 'land of plenty'. Throughout history, the Burmese continued to be moulded in this way--by their religion and their geography. "Little has changed today. Some of the expertise the outside world has to offer is utilised but mass modernity holds little or no appeal for these mysterious beautiful people."6
Thus, Therevada Buddhism held great importance to the mix of people in Burma. Critical to this was the religion's role in unifying and nationalising the country. This role and importance can be seen throughout Burmese history in the hold the religion had on the people in their determination to hold onto their individuality despite invasions and wars.
Of the Burmese temples, the kingdom of the dynasty of Pagan created the most spectacular. However, in 1287, the Mongols from China, under Kubilai Khan, invaded Burma and destroyed the temples and the Pagan kingdom. The country separated into small states during the folowing years.3
The Shan tribes, who belonged to the Thai people, settled in large areas of Burma and the Mons regained independence in the south. Pegu became their capital--the former Hamsavati. An important reform in the Buddhist Sangha was introduced by their king Dhammaceti (1472-92). "This reform was much-needed in 15th century Burma, since many monks had contravened the rules of the Order, for example, by amassing wealth for themselves, or by practicing astrology and their secular arts."2 The king had belonged to Singhalese Sangha, so it was natural for him to revive the monastic Discipline and introduce Ceylon ordination traditions. The kingdom of Pegu was later destroyed by the Burmese in 1539 and 1551 but the reform continued to be successfully carried out in all parts of the country. Present day Burmese monks trace back their ordination to this tradition.
In 1752, the Burmese king, Alaungpaya, founder of the last Burmese dynasty, the Konbaung, prevented the Mons' last attempt to restore their state. He was a cruel monarch who launched a massive expansion of Burmese rule, leading to clashes with the British and, ultimately, the downfall of the Burmese empire. By 1852, after the two Anglo-Burmese wars, all of lower Burma had been handed over.3
The empire was now limited to upper Burma. Another revival of the Buddhist religion occurred under King Mindon (1853-78) whose aim was to rule in accordance with the Buddhist king of peace. A revision of the Holy scriptures was carried out in 1871 and these were engraved on marble tablets and erected in the new capital of Mandalay, making this the spiritual centre of Therevada Buddhism.3 By 1885, after the third Anglo-Burmese war, upper Burma was incorporated in the British-Indian empire.
As stated earlier, the Burmese kingdom had essentially cut itself off from the world. With its incorporation into the British empire, however, the country was opened up and radically reorganised. "Royal patronage of the monastic Order had been so important a part of the religious community in the old kingdom of Burma that many Burmese thought the elimination of the dynasty would be a heavy blow to religion itself."3 But this was not the case. Burma had identified with Buddhism for centuries, giving it a strength among the people as a faith that could not be over-run by another religion, much to the dismay of the Christian missionaries.
An 1839 publication by Howard Malcolm, Travels in Southeastern Asia (Vol.1, p.321) emphasises the importance of Buddhism as an edifice of nationalism and unity. "In the British provinces, the national faith, having been robbed of the support of the secular arm, seems to be cherished so much the more by national feeling. Expectancy that the religion of the new rulers may spread, seems to awake greater vigilance that it may not."3
The fact that the Burmese people adhered to and identified with their hereditary religion is further strengthened by the existence in Burma of Christianity, Hinduism and Islam, which belonged to the Indian immigrants and the British conquerors at that time.
Both Burma and Ceylon are examples of two countries with democratic, republican constitutions linked to Buddhist traditions that won their freedom from British colonial rule. "In both countries, Buddhism, which the English had driven from its privileged position, had formed the spiritual nexus of the resistance to colonialism."7
By looking through the history of Burma, the appeal of Therevada Buddhism can be clearly seen. At a time of separate states and ethnic groupings, it offered unification through religion, which led to a strong national identification. The Buddhist emphasis on order and discipline complimented the monarchy and constitution. Its ethic of equality brought social justice, education and opposition to the immoral Hindu caste system. In essence, Therevada Buddhism gave the people of Burma a sense of identity and national pride--an intrinsic quality of strength that endured through the many wars and invasions of Burmese history.
Copyright: Tracey Vale
References
Keyes, Charles F., 1995, The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia, University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, p. 78, 79, 80, 81, 82
Bechert, H. and Gombrich, R, 1984, The World of Buddhism, Facts on File, North America. p. 7, 9, 156, 152
Gombrich, R, '"To be a Burmese is to be a Buddhist"': Buddhism in Burma, cited in Bechert and Gombrich (as above) p. 147-9.
Waley, A., 'Buddhism as a Philosophy', p.15-18, cited in Conze, E., 1959, Buddhism: its essence and development, Harper Torchbooks, New York.
Steinberg, D.J. (ed.), 1987, In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History, Revised Edition, University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, p.60, 61.
Courtauld, C., 1984, In Search of Burma, Frederick Muller Limited, Great Britain, p. 18, 19
Benz, E., 1965, Buddhism or Communism: Which holds the future of Asia?, George Allen & Unwin, London, p. 49, 51
Bibliography
All as listed above and including:
Wyatt, David K., 1984, Thailand: A Short History, Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
Osborne, M., 1990, Southeast Asia: An illustrated introductory history, Fifth Edition, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, Australia.
Tambiah, S.J., 1975, Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-east Thailand, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain.
